The Enigma of rock sculptures and engravings in Jaiñtia Hills

D. R. Michael Buam

The Khasi and Jaiñtia hills are abundant in relics of the past which are more evident in the monoliths, dolmens and menhirs which stand till today as reminders of the glorious and colourful history of the indigenous people of the region. But sadly, no written records exist (or are yet to be found) of the early history of these people. Notably, oral tradition tells us that the Khasi tribes have swallowed their books (U Khasi u la nguid ïa ka kot) and therefore have lost their script forever. Another oral tradition (among the War-Jaiñtia) points to the supposition that the scribes among the Khasi tribes were a revered group who became extinct at some point in history. The term used for them, "Prai-Dia" literally means 'god of the cloth' which is suggestive that they wrote on cloth.  

Remnants of a once thriving weekly market at Moopat in East Jaiñtia Hills of Meghalaya.

It was only in 1842 that the Rev. Thomas Jones undertook to re-create the Khasi alphabets using the Roman script. Since then, the people have produced writings across all literary genres. And although the early history of the people which has been passed down the generations by oral tradition has also been reflected in some literary works, not much light has been shed on the actual dates and events in particular, barring a few that have appeared in the ‘Buranjis’ of Assam and Tripura and the accounts of the British officers and scholars who have served in the region from the early 19^th century till India’s independence from British rule in 1947.

Arched stone bridge built during the reign of Jaiñtia Kings near Syndai in West Jaiñtia Hills.

Therefore, the ancient and medieval history of the Khasi and Jaiñtia hills still remain an incomplete study which only archaeologists and historians can complete (or try to). The contribution of historical linguist to the study would definitely add clarity to the picture and even researchers of other disciplines can also shed light to this under-developed picture. Genetical studies, for one, has helped a lot to shed more light in the study of history and ancient civilizations and can change the current perception on what we have learnt so far. While recent carbon dating of a few iron smelting sites point to the people’s antiquity, (see Prokop and Suliga) underground excavations have scarcely been done to dig out the ancient history of the people in Khasi and Jaiñtia hills. The only excavation we have come to know of was done (by Dr. Marco Mitri and his team) around the Lum Sohpetbneng area and it does support the existence of a civilisation whose myths were centred round the Lum Sohpetbneng near the present-day man-made Umïam lake near Shillong. Prominent author and journalist, Sumar Singh Sawian has brought out a book, Ka Thymmei Lariti, based on this.

Elephant rock sculpture at Ampubon near Syndai village in West Jaiñtia Hills.

Oral tradition, as we know it, has been subjected to embellishments as well as deletions. It sometimes also creates confusion through existence of varying versions of a particular event or person. This is clearly evident in the 3 to 4 different versions of the legend of “Ka Lidakha” which tells of the origin of the Jaiñtia kings. However, in spite of its demerits, oral tradition still remains the chief source of early history of Khasi and Jaiñtia Hills and if not recorded would soon get eroded or buried into antiquity.

Stone bridge at Thlumuwi in West Jaiñtia Hills.

And it is on oral tradition that this article relies to try to understand the existing rock engravings and sculptures found in Jaiñtia Hills. In the midst of the realities already presented above, we are presented with the relics of the past which are difficult to explain in the absence of written records. This leaves much room for speculation. Here, the imagination of the human mind comes to play and naiveté serves to propagate misinformation. In the scheme of daily life, especially in this hectic world, rumination and contemplation have become scarce.

The Rupasor Bathing Ghat of the Jaiñtia Royals dug in a rock at Ampubon near Syndai village.

Jaiñtia hills has its fair share (if not more) of evidences of past events through the monoliths, remnants of haats (weekly markets) and structures that stand till today besides the awe-inspiring stone bridges that have withstood the natural forces of weathering and decay till today. It is the human activities that are more threatening to these relics. A notable point in this observation is the absence of engravings and sculptures in the central part of Jaiñtia hills. This may be proven to be wrong (I hope so) but till now, nothing has been reported to the contrary. The sculptures and engravings we have observed so far are seen in the areas that adjoin a different culture.

Rock surfaces on the west bank of the Tisang (Myntdu) River near Pasadwar village in West Jaiñtia Hills bear several engravings of Hindu culture and local myths. 

In the south Jaiñtia hills, (i.e. the War-Jaiñtia area), we encounter engravings of Hindu culture and faith, such as the ‘Trishul’ engraved at different periods on the rocks that embank the Tisang river (known as the Myntdu river in its upper reaches) near Psadwar village. The Jaiñtia kings, who also ruled over the plains of Sylhet (now in Bangladesh) besides their traditional kingdom in Jaiñtia hills were liberal and therefore accepted Hindu beliefs. Hence we see the engraving of the Hindu deity ‘Ganesh’ on the path leading to a cave in Syndai village where Hindu pilgrims used to visit on the annual occasion of ‘Shiv Ratri’. We also see the rock-cut sculpture of Ganesh cut on the rock in the bathing pool of the Jaiñtia royalty at the Rupasor bathing ghat near Syndai village on the road to Muktapur, a border village through which the ancient road to Jaiñtiapur (the winter capital of the Jaiñtia kings) passes through.

Image of Lord Ganesha carved in a rock near Syndai village in West Jaiñtia Hills.

The only reference to local culture can be seen in the engraving of “U Khmi” (Earthquake) which is found on a rock on the banks of the Tisang river near Psadwar. Oral tradition tells us that “U Khmi” was a giant residing under the surface of the earth and the earthquakes that we feel are the result of him moving his body parts. He was said to be so powerful that if he moved either both his arms and hands, the earth would crumble. Therefore, his mother cut off his ear on one side and one side of his limbs so that he will not be able to destroy the earth. This legend is depicted in the moss-covered engraving that is seen till today. Near this engraving a little downstream, we can also find the engravings of what the locals claim to be of Rama and Lakhsmana on a rock and nearer still is found an engraving of a tiger and a woman. Though a clear explanation of the engravings are lacking, they still remain as mute witnesses of a time gone by.

Representation of "U Khmi" found on the west bank of River Tisang (Myntdu) near Pasadwar village in West Jaiñtia Hills.

The representation of the sun and moon on stone are found close to the Rupasor bathing ghat and the sculptures of small elephants are found on the stream called Ampubon, also situated near the Rupasor bathing ghat. These sculptures are indicative of the influence of Hindu culture and were most probably made during the reign of the Jaiñtia kings. Arched stone bridges, most probably belonging to the 18^th century AD are to be found near the Rupasor bathing ghat. These are testimony of the Jaiñtia Kingdom’s legacy.

"U Moo-syiem" representing an unnamed king of the past at Khanduli village in West Jaiñtia Hills.

In Khanduli, a village in the northern part of Jaiñtia hills, adjoining the Karbi Anglong district of Assam, we find engravings on rocks that depict a soldier or a king. One of the engravings has been destroyed due to a road constructed on its location. Probably, the engraving had gone unnoticed or ignored by the labourers, but the elderly residents still recall it in their memory. Fortunately, a similar engraving has been preserved by thoughtful individuals, which we find on the outskirts of the village to the north. This engraving has been fenced off and marked to protect it from being destroyed. However, traces of paint are seen on the face of the engraving which otherwise still remains intact. Below the image of the soldier (or king) is juxtaposed an image of a woman (maybe of the queen). Only detailed studies can reveal the true meaning of the engravings. But the local name of the engraving on rock does point to a king being its subject. Local tradition refers to it as the “Moo-Syiem” (King’s rock/stone) although it does not refer to a name or age.

Engraving of an animal (Tiger?) and a woman found on the western bank of Tisang (Myntdu) River near Pasadwar village.

The most interesting engraving or rock sculpture in Jaiñtia hills may be ascribed to the rock carving of a Vulva situated on the outskirts of Lum Lakhiat village (Near Khanduli). The vulva has been carved on a rock which is about 15 feet wide and 5 feet off the higher ground. The engraving is a larger than life representation of the female genital and is inconspicuous to the normal eye because of the creepers growing on the rock and also because of the vegetation growing around it which camouflages it from the ordinary eye. I call it interesting because it evokes several questions to which the answers seem elusive. The present villagers of Lum Lakhiat have no knowledge of its origin. Most of them are unaware of its presence because it is situated away from the village on a hill, but close to their paddy fields.

The carving of a vulva on a rock on the outskirts of Lumlakhiat village in West Jaiñtia Hills

We may probably never know who made it and when, but why was it made and for what purposes? Was it a product of voyeurism or was it made by someone who had nothing better to do? Or, could it be the work of someone inspired by creative thought? I am inclined to link it to Yoni-worship which is prevalent even today in India. The vulva engraved on this rock is similar to that at Kamakhya temple in Guwahati in Assam (a neighbour of Meghalaya). Kamakhya is one of the most visited ‘Shakti Peethas’ by Hindu pilgrims. Meghalaya also boasts of a “Shakti Peetha” located at Nartiang in Jaiñtia hills, which happens to be quite close (about 35 Kms) to Lum Lakhiat towards the South. This proximity of the vulva engraving at Lum Lakhiat to the “Shakti Peetha” at Nartiang does suggest that perhaps during the reign of the Jaiñtia Kings (who were patrons of Hinduism), Yoni-worship was practised by some of their subjects which slowly discontinued with the decline of the kingdom after the British annexation in 1835 AD.

Images (purportedly) of Ram and Lakhan on a rock on the western bank of Tisang (Myntdu) River near Pasadwar village. 

There is another sculpture at Kseh Rynchang (also near Khanduli) which is now broken and removed from its original location during the construction of a road there. It now lies face down beside the tri-junction of the main road to Khanduli. People of the village say that there were two sculptures of a man and a woman in the nude. They do not know when or who made the sculptures but a story attached to the nude sculptures tells that the man and woman were turned to rock figures due to a curse by the man’s wife when she found that the man (her husband) had committed adultery against her with the woman.

Photographs of the Bullocks of Miat Rynsut Pala taken by (Late) Shining Star Laloo.

The late Shining Star Laloo in his book written in Khasi, “Ka Syiem Latympang” (Queen Latympang) mentions some stone engravings and sculptures that can be found in Latuba near Thangrain village in West Jaintia Hills to the north. These include the elephant of U Syiem Slieng (a neighbouring king who fought against Queen Latympang), the bullocks of U Miat Rynsut Pala (Queen Latympang’s beloved) and his plough. Oral also tradition tells that Miat Rynsut had left his two bullocks while ploughing his field to rush to the aid of Queen Latympang. The bullocks kept waiting for his return but when he did not come back to the field, the bullocks and his plough turned to stone. The stone bullocks were disfigured with cracks not many years ago due to weathering but locals say that they cracked after a rainstorm known as ‘Ka Pylliang’ hit the area incessantly for nine days and nights.

Representation of the Sun and Moon on rock lying to the west of the Rupasor Royal Bathing Ghat near Syndai village.

Some engravings have also been found on a monolith at Tamu, another village near Khanduli and another rock carving has also been reported from the same region at Saitsama village. An engraving of a rooster and an elephant on one of the monoliths in Yawmusiang at Nangbah village has been highlighted later (using black paint) by somebody yet unknown. The arched stone bridge at Umïaknieh (to the south of Krangshuri falls near Amlarem) also has some engravings on its sides. This bridge is similar in structure to the one near the Rupasor bathing ghat and is probably of the same age and lies on the ancient highway between the summer capital (Nartiang) and the winter capital (Sylhet) of the Jaiñtia kings. Maybe some more are to be discovered. Only time will tell.

Tridents (Trishuls) engraved on rocks along the western bank of Tisang (Myntdu) River near Pasadwar village.

It must be noted that it is considered taboo in the Khasi and Jaiñtia culture to make images in any form of one’s God, ancestors, deities and any object of reverence. This has also been reiterated by the noted artist and writer Raphael Warjri in his book “Ka Thoh Dur Mynta” (A Khasi book on Creative Art). Till the recent past some elders still refrain from being photographed. Therefore, it is not surprising to find very few rock engravings or sculptures in Khasi and Jaiñtia hills. Those that are mentioned here most probably have been the influence of other cultures as they are found only in the Southern and Northern fringes of the erstwhile Jaiñtia Kingdom which come in contact with neighbouring cultures. However, it is a subject of further research which will lead to a better understanding of the subject.

A rooster and an elephant etched on a monolith at Yawmusiang in Nangbah Village of West Jaiñtia Hills.

(The views expressed above are those of the writer. He can be contacted at drmbuam@gmail.com The author permits use of the texts and images with credit to the source where superimposed and to the author where there is none.)

Folk Tales of Vaar-Jaintia

THE CROW, THE JACKAL AND THE RED CRAB[1]

(A Folk tale of Jong-U-Shen[2] as retold by D. R. Michael Buam)

There was a crow; of course a clever crow, because stupid crows are unheard of in the books that we read (please keep me informed if I have missed a stupid crow somewhere). No, we shouldn’t dare call them stupid, since the story of the ‘clever crow’ got published! There, you see, the significance of a precedent! Of course, the crows are fallible to flattery; but you know that already. That is another precedent.

Well, after agreeing on the IQ of the crow, let us get down to the topic. This crow was allegedly the same crow that was ‘foxed’ by the jackal into singing like a gay ‘jay’ so that it dropped the food from its jaws into the open greedy jaws of the jackal. You must have heard of this rumour too. I heard that it did get published in some textbooks.

Anyway, there were several adventures between the jackal and the crow such that their relationship deteriorated into a ‘mouse’ and ‘cat’ relationship instead of the regular jackal and crow relationship.

In this context, you will understand the following events that I relate as happened to them.

One day, the crow was basking in the sun on the topmost branch of an Oroxylum tree overlooking a small bog filled with the delicious (to humans) species of swamp colocasia plants growing beside a stream. These plants grow wild and gregariously at that, such that they look like a mono-cultivated crop – very misleading. But it is not uncommon to see orderliness in the wild. As opposed to humans, who avoid talking to their hated enemy, the jackal can’t resist talking to the crow. Maybe, animals still love their enemies, like Jesus told humans to do so and animals have copied the advice. I did ask my dog for confirmation and he just barked at me. I am not sure whether he meant “yes” or it meant “give me a bone” because it sounded like “I want a bone”. So, let me give him a bone so that I can continue with what we started.

Well, the jackal couldn’t resist taunting the crow. You must all have known by now, that, pure love or pure hatred calls for absolute attention and obsession. Not knowing all the facts we stated in the previous paragraph (of course, this was written after the event and so there was no way the jackal could have read about it and be forewarned). So, the jackal walks up to the Oroxylum tree and asks the crow, “What are you doing my beloved enemy?” The crow looked down and screamed at the jackal, “Why have you stepped on the King’s crops? Don’t you know that I have been appointed to guard the King’s crops? Step back at once or I will have the soldiers on you!”

The jackal did indeed jump back in astonishment but quickly recovered his composure and enquired, “What crops are you guarding? I don’t see anything worth to a King.”

The crow smiled a fake benevolent smile at the jackal and replied, “Have you never seen a sugarcane plantation in all your cunning life? Be clever for once and recognize the plants that surround you here and now!”

The jackal looked around at the colocasia plants but couldn’t say what they were. Now we must take into account here that the jackal has limited knowledge of botany. The clever crow is aware of this. The jackal is more into zoology with specialization into smaller mammals like rabbits and flightless birds like pheasants. He is of course the master in the subject of domestic poultry of the human habitat and has on several occasions received gun salutes, spear throws, sling shots and arrow shots from the humans for his endeavours to capture and digest the subject of domesticated animals in human habitat. Needless to say, some of his brethren were ultimately absorbed into the digestive system of humans despite their foul smell.

I think I am prey to the habit of digression. But that is my weakness and you will all indulge a person to at least one thing or the other. Let me get back to the events then. Yes, we were talking of the jackal’s knowledge of botany. I must digress again or you will not understand the import of botany or zoology on this important event. You see, this jackal was, to speak in local sense, a hill jackal. In the hills, you won’t see a sugarcane plantation.  Of course, you will occasionally see a sugarcane plant or a cluster of them in a human habitat. But in the plains, especially in the alluvial plains of the then undivided Bengal[3], the sugarcane plantations are a forest in themselves. This jackal of the hills had been told about large sugarcane plantations from his cousins living in the plains because they frequently hunt and hide there. He too did tell them about the areca nut and betel leaf cultivations in the hills where he lived.

In the light of this, the jackal looked once again at the colocasia plants growing beside the stream and seemed to understand what the crow was referring to. He had heard that sugarcane was very sweet to taste and therefore having never seen it in his life, he wanted to taste it. He asked the crow, “Please sister crow, let me get a taste of the sugarcane. I have never got this opportunity before.” The crow deliberately refused at first and only after the jackal had entreated for the umpteenth time did she relent. The jackal took a bite of one stalk of the colocasia consuming the whole plant in his ignorance.

He had visions of sweetness but it never came to him. Maybe the Creator didn’t equip him with taste buds for sweetness. Maybe the carnivore’s taste of sweetness is completely different from an omnivore’s or a herbivore’s. These are simply my allusions and you should not be distracted by them. Another botanical fact which the jackal never knew so far was that, all Colocasia species contained an irritant which can cause intense irritation and discomfort to the lips, mouth and throat when consumed. The main culprit causing the discomfort is the microscopic needle-like raphides of calcium oxalate monohydrate and aided by another small ruffian we suspect to be a protease. If eaten raw or half-cooked, these microscopic needles pierce the tissues of the lips, mouth and throat and cause a severe irritation of the throat that would leave you in a situation similar to a person who is bound hand and foot face-wards to a pillar and having a sudden and severe itch on his bum having no way to scratch the itch.

Well, you can leave your visions of the itching bum and come back to the visions of the jackal. This preceding fact was already known to humans from their earlier experiences or through accident (no satisfying record exists to prove any) and so they found a way to safely consume the edible colocasia leaves and corms by boiling them long enough and adding something tangy to go with it. The crow knew this through her aerial acquaintance with humans. This knowledge did come at a cost because she did survive the missiles of catapults aimed at her. Though she did lose some feathers in the process, her head and life were intact. Now, she used that knowledge to settle a score with her beloved enemy.

I think you can imagine what happened to the jackal a few minutes after eating and swallowing a few mouthfuls of his ‘sugarcane’. You see, if he also had kept his English dictionary close at hand, he would have immediately seen through the crow’s bluff. The colocasia plants did not even resemble a cane. They were just herbaceous and weak plants without anything hard on them (on the outside of course), you would need a microscope to see those microscopic needles. But then, he must have learned his lesson since his last visit to the town. He had bought a “Dressed Chicken” from a store only to discover later, on unpacking the package, that it had been completely undressed. So, we’ll give him the benefit of doubt.

Within a few minutes, the itches began to show and the jackal immediately understood that the crow had gotten the better of him this time. His throat itched and irritated him so much that he couldn’t even exclaim the curses and expletives he so much wanted to hurl shamelessly at the crow, who was currently enjoying the misery of the jackal. You can try imagining the laughter of a crow. It is something like this: “Caw! Caw! Caw!” Yes, yes. You can tell me that the expression is similar but here you will have to add a sneer to it and imagine the famous Bollywood villain of the silver screen, Late Amrish Puri doing it. Yes, that’s it. You are getting it.

The jackal drank the water from the stream and gargled his throat in the hope of easing the discomfort. He howled in anger at the crow but it only enhanced the evil pleasure of the crow. Well, I won’t dwell longer on the jackal’s suffering and call it a day.

It was several days later that the jackal chanced on the crow and asked her by which road she would go to the market the next day. The crow replied that she would take the old road to the market. So the jackal waited in hiding for the crow along the old road the next day hoping to catch her unawares and have his revenge on the crow. He had in fact kept the utensils and firewood ready beside the stream in order to cook the crow alive and savour his revenge. The crow had already suspected him and instead went to the market using the new road.

It happened again the next market day. The crow having told the jackal that she would take the new road to the market had instead taken the old road this time. So, next time, the jackal had smarted and waited in hiding for the crow to come along the new road to the market. She had told him that she would take the old road again. He did not have long to wait and pounced on her as soon as she passed by him while he was hiding behind a broomstick bush by the road.

The fire was burning under the pot of water which the jackal had put on the makeshift fireplace beside the stream. The crow was held captive after he had tied her with a string made of a lilaceous plant. The crow glanced furtively at all directions in the hope of finding a means to escape. She saw a crab in the water and pleaded with it to help her escape.

The jackal was busy with keeping the fire burning, pushing and shoving the logs and blowing air from his lungs to keep the fire steady and stronger. When the water had boiled, he turned his attention to the crow and gloated with glee in front of the crow before taking it from its tethering. “So, you thought I will never catch you, is it? See! I have the last laugh! I will cook you alive and eat you - feathers, entrails and all! This will be my complete revenge on all the insults I suffered from you. No, no use of shouting for help! No one will be able to free you from my clutches! You see, once I have my prey in my grips, no power can stop me!”

The crow did not get any help from heaven but it did get help from a small creature of the water. The crab had surreptitiously walked sideways (as is the custom of crabs – of course it walked crabwise) out of the water and reached the foot of the jackal who was holding the crow in his hands while gloating over her. The crab then bit the jackal hard on his little toe that it nearly snapped into pieces. The sudden pain and shock made the jackal jump with a howl and spread his hands apart letting the crow free. The crow flew away and perched herself beyond reach on a tree.

(The original version of the story as told to me was that the crab, using its larger claw, had actually pinched the jackal by the balls that it hurt beyond description. Any male will understand what this attack means – in terms of pain, while the rest will enjoy the comic effect of the action. I stated that the crab clawed him on the toe only to appear more respectable. But I have already given myself away. Guilty as charged.)

So, the jackal after recovering from the initial shock and pain searched for his attacker and sadly for the crab who was not quick enough to rush back to his hideout was pounced upon by the jackal.

The jackal, as was his habit (or his weakness) was prone to give a speech before his actions. So he said to the crab, “So you want to join the list of my enemies, do you? Well, I will show you how I treat my enemies once I have them in my grip. You deprived me of my revenge and my meal! I will get that crow one way or the other. However, for the time being, you will satisfy my hunger for food and revenge.” With that he put the crab into the boiling pot of water.

The crow had watched all this from a safe distance. But as soon as the jackal put the crab into the pot of boiling water, she flew down and thought hard how to save her rescuer. She picked a heavy rock from the ground and carried it high over the point where the pot was placed. She then dropped it on the pot and it overturned pouring the boiling water and the crab into the stream. The crab was not yet dead but almost so. Its shell was already turning bright red from being cooked (Prawns and crabs turn bright red in colour when they are cooked). As soon as it touched the cold water of the stream, it made a supreme effort and rushed to the nearest hiding placed in a crevice beneath a huge rock in the stream. The jackal rushed in vain to catch it. The crow and the crab had the last laugh on him.

The crow went off to live in another forest having had enough of the jackal. The jackal returned every day to hunt for the crab in the stream but it was in vain. The crab gave up its water abode and settled on the hill beside the stream. The jackal didn’t know this and without the crow in sight he had no enemy to wage war on and so continued to overturn the rocks and push pointed sticks through the crevices under the large rocks in the stream hoping to catch his new-found beloved enemy.

We are more familiar with the freshwater crab that now and then finds its way into our diet. It is also a spoilsport during our fishing of the freshwater snakehead fishes (Hee-shlaa). So, with this legend, our ancestors have tried to explain the existence of the local land crab, which is an uncommon species even in those times. They still survive today because they are not usually part of our diet. There are many species of land crabs around the world. In the Khasi Hills, we come across a smaller species which is just 2 to 3 centimetres across. But the hero of our story is about 8 to 10 centimetres long or maybe more (I am yet to find a larger species) and it is bright red in colour, unlike the freshwater crab we find here, which is dark brown in colour. But when this freshwater crab is cooked, boiled or fried, it turns red in colour which gives rise to the notion that the local red crab was the one that escaped the boiling pot of the jackal.

It was this brave crab that we come across on the jungle path in the southern slope of Jaintia hills. It is truly a brave creature because whenever you come across it, it stands its ground and bares its claws at you. I do not talk crab but the attitude it shows reflects that it doesn’t take crap either. It ignores the fact that you can kill it by just stepping on it. But I guess, it does not matter to a faithful warrior who stands for righteousness. You can dominate the body but not the spirit. Yes, dear friend, keep baring those claws and bite the villains’s foot (or balls, if present). I will cheer you on that. Live long my fellow-living being, I will not eat you, yet…

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Copyleft 2013, D. R. Michael Buam.

The texts in this article are copyleft. The author permits others to copy, distribute, display, quote, and create derivative works based upon them in print and digital format for any non-commercial, non-profit purposes, on the conditions that the original title and author is credited and cited as a source, and the work is reproduced in the spirit of the original. The author would like to be informed of any copies produced.

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[1] The Red Crab is a name I conjured for the land crab in the story because of its bright red colour as opposed to the dull colour of the freshwater crab.

[2] Jong-u-Shen or Cjongmuchen as it is locally known, is a village in the south-western slope of Jaintia Hills overlooking the plains of Bangladesh. It is a kilometers to the west of Syndai, a village famous worldwide for its caves and historical significance. The inhabitants of the southern slopes of Khasi and Jaintia Hills are referred to as the Vaar. Thus, we have the Vaar-Khasi in Khasi Hills and the Vaar-Jaintia in Jaintia Hills.

[3] Bengal was divided like a piece of cake in 1947 between India and Pakistan of which the latter got a smaller piece called East Pakistan to be later called Bangladesh after the liberation war in 1971-72.